व्यापार से मिलने वाली दौलत ही पश्चिमी देशों की भौतिक प्रगति की मुख्य वजह थी; और इस बदलाव के सबसे बड़े हथियार बड़ी तोपें थीं। ये 15वीं शताब्दी में यूरोप में पूरी तरह विकसित हुईं। ज़मीन पर किले की दीवारों को नेस्तनाबूद करने में उनकी ताकत ने स्थानीय ताकतों की तुलना में केंद्रीय सत्ता को मज़बूत किया, क्योंकि आमतौर पर केवल राजा-महाराजा ही तोपखानों का खर्च उठा सकते थे; इसलिए राष्ट्र-राज्य मज़बूत हुए और बड़े क्षेत्रीय साम्राज्यों में फैल गए। समुद्र पर, तोपों ने नाविक जहाजों को ऐसे चलते-फिरते किलों में बदल दिया, जिन्हें उन दुश्मनों के लिए भेदना लगभग नामुमकिन था जिनके पास वैसी ही ताकतवर तोपें नहीं थीं। समुद्र में चलने वाले हथियारों से लैस युद्धपोतों के साथ, पश्चिमी यूरोप ने पूरी दुनिया में अपने पैर पसारने शुरू कर दिए।
Wealth from trade was the mainspring of Western material advance; the visible agents of change were great guns. These came of age in Europe in the 15th century. On land their potency in reducing castle walls favoured central over local power, since in general only monarchs could afford siege-trains; so nation-states were consolidated and extended into great territorial empires. At sea, guns transformed sailing ships into mobile castles virtually impregnable to opponents who lacked equally powerful ordnance. With the ocean-going gunned warship, western Europe began to extend around the globe.
Wealth from trade was the mainspring of Western material advance; the visible agents of change were great guns. These came of age in Europe in the 15th century. On land their potency in reducing castle walls favoured central over local power, since in general only monarchs could afford siege-trains; so nation-states were consolidated and extended into great territorial empires. At sea, guns transformed sailing ships into mobile castles virtually impregnable to opponents who lacked equally powerful ordnance. With the ocean-going gunned warship, western Europe began to extend around the globe.
लोकतंत्र, व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता और मानवाधिकारों में हमारा विश्वास, तथा मानवतावादी उदारवादी विचारधारा के अन्य आश्वस्त करने वाले सिद्धांत, प्रादेशिक ताकत की तुलना में समुद्री ताकत की सर्वोच्चता से उपजे हैं। व्यावहारिक लोग भले ही इसे एक भद्दे नियतिवाद या इतिहास का सामान्य सिद्धांत गढ़ने के एक और व्यर्थ प्रयास के रूप में खारिज कर दें। लेकिन उन्हें इस बात पर विचार करना चाहिए कि यदि पिछले चार शताब्दियों के भीषण वैश्विक संघर्षों में हाब्सबर्ग, बर्बन, बोनापार्ट, हिटलर, स्टालिन या उनके उत्तराधिकारी विजयी होते, तो आज हमारी राजनीतिक और सामाजिक व्यवस्था कैसी होती।
Our faith in democracy, personal freedoms and human 'rights', and the other comforting prescriptions of the humanist liberal credo stem from the supremacy of maritime over territorial power. Pragmatists may deplore this as crude determinism, as another vain attempt to construct a general theory of history. They should reflect on the sort of political philosophy and structures we might now adhere to had the Habsburgs, Bourbons, Bonaparte, Hitler, Stalin or his heirs prevailed in the titanic world struggles of the past four centuries.
Our faith in democracy, personal freedoms and human 'rights', and the other comforting prescriptions of the humanist liberal credo stem from the supremacy of maritime over territorial power. Pragmatists may deplore this as crude determinism, as another vain attempt to construct a general theory of history. They should reflect on the sort of political philosophy and structures we might now adhere to had the Habsburgs, Bourbons, Bonaparte, Hitler, Stalin or his heirs prevailed in the titanic world struggles of the past four centuries.
क्षेत्रीय राजा समुद्री ताकतों के खिलाफ बार-बार इसलिए असफल नहीं हुए कि निरंकुश और जनता की सहमति के बिना चलने वाली सरकारें शांति के समय में बड़े बेड़े बनाने में सक्षम नहीं थीं—बल्कि इसके विपरीत, वे युद्ध के संकट के समय उनका वित्तपोषण (फंडिंग) करने में असमर्थ थीं। मुख्य रूप से ऐसा इसलिए था क्योंकि उन्हें समुद्री व्यापार के मुनाफे से अपने समुद्री दुश्मनों द्वारा पोषित क्षेत्रीय प्रतिद्वंद्वियों से लड़ने के लिए, अपने संसाधनों को बेड़े से हटाकर अपनी सेनाओं पर लगाने के लिए मजबूर होना पड़ता था।
The reason territorial monarchs failed time after time against maritime powers was not that absolutist, non-consensual governments were incapable of building great fleets in peace - quite the reverse - but that they were unable to fund them in the crises of war. Mainly this was because they were forced to divert resources from the fleet to their armies, to fight territorial rivals frequently financed by their maritime enemy from the profits of sea trade.
The reason territorial monarchs failed time after time against maritime powers was not that absolutist, non-consensual governments were incapable of building great fleets in peace - quite the reverse - but that they were unable to fund them in the crises of war. Mainly this was because they were forced to divert resources from the fleet to their armies, to fight territorial rivals frequently financed by their maritime enemy from the profits of sea trade.
फिलिप सैन्य रूप से इंग्लैंड पर कब्जा करना नहीं चाहते होंगे, क्योंकि इससे एक और महंगा और लंबा संघर्ष शुरू हो जाता और फ्रांस उनके खिलाफ मैदान में आ जाता। हालाँकि, वह एलिज़ाबेथ के घरेलू कैथोलिक शत्रुओं का समर्थन करके, यहाँ तक कि गृहयुद्ध भड़काकर उन्हें कमज़ोर कर सकते थे।
Philip could not have wanted to annex England militarily, since this would have opened another costly occupation struggle, and brought France in against him. He might, however, neutralize Elizabth by supporting her internal Catholic enemies, even provoking civil war.
Philip could not have wanted to annex England militarily, since this would have opened another costly occupation struggle, and brought France in against him. He might, however, neutralize Elizabth by supporting her internal Catholic enemies, even provoking civil war.
यह बिल्कुल स्पष्ट है कि सच्ची स्वतंत्रता की मशाल, नौसैनिक प्रभुत्व और संवैधानिक, परामर्शदायी शासन के साथ, यूनाइटेड प्रोविंसेस से ग्रेट ब्रिटेन तक पहुंच गई थी, जहाँ इसे राष्ट्रीय गौरव के समान ही देखा गया था।
It is clear that the flame of True Freedom had passed with naval supremacy and constitutional, consultative government from the United Provinces to Great Britain, where it was regarded with quite as much national pride.
It is clear that the flame of True Freedom had passed with naval supremacy and constitutional, consultative government from the United Provinces to Great Britain, where it was regarded with quite as much national pride.